Grave and Kaplan (1996) allege that “academic writing is a type of writing that involves composing for knowledge transforming” (as cited in Pintos, & Crimi, 2010b, p. 7). To transform knowledge, it would be necessary to acquire a variety of skills such as knowledge of academic register, formal style, proficiency in language use and critical thinking. Critical thinking will allow us compose, analyse and develop new ideas which are essential abilities in knowledge transforming. However, as Reid (2001) states it is not only a question of understanding what to communicate, but also a matter of understanding how information should be presented and supported (cited in Pintos & Crimi, 2010b, p8).
Information should be presented and supported following a pre-established set of rules. Among the mentioned rules, acknowledging sources is considered a must to avoid plagiarism, to show respect to other author’s works and to sound credible in academic scenarios therefore, it is absolutely necessary to learn how to cite sources properly (Pintos and Crimi, 2010a). This paper will analyze how Myles (2002) uses quotations, omissions, insertions, reporting verbs, in text-citations and any other relevant elements in order to enhance the credibility of her writing and give support to her own claims.
In Myles’ (2002) article, different types of in text-citations can be analyzed: Parenthetical citations, paraphrased citations, block quotations and direct quotes. All of them appear to be highly integrated to the text. For instance, short quotations seem to be blended into the text by means of the prepositions by, as, in or of. In long quotations, she achieves the same assimilation to the text using a wide variety of reporting verbs such as propose, argue, discuss, observe and point out, between others. She also takes advantage of the use of introductory phrases as it can be seen in the following example: According to the researchers “conceptualizing this transition as a social/cognitive act ...emphasizes both the problem-solving effort of a student learning to negotiate a new situation and the role the situation will play in what is learned” (p. 3).
In addition, Myles (2002) has made use of omissions and insertions. In this case Myles (2002) has combined several strategies paraphrasing, direct quotation, use of by to introduce a short quotation and omission: In fact, Bereinter and Scardamalia (1987) criticize formal schooling that encourages the more passive kind of cognition by “continually telling students what to do”, rather than encouraging them “to follow their spontaneous interests and impulses . . . and assume responsibility for what becomes of their minds” (p. 3). The following example of an insertion is included in a block quotation and preceded by an introductory phrase: According to Mclaughlin (1988), transfer errors can occur because:
[L]earners lack the necessary information in the second language or the attentional
capacity to activate the appropriate second-language routine. But such an account
says little about why certain linguistic forms transfer and others do not. (p. 7)
After all this analysis, it can be concluded that Myles (2002) has almost certainly used a vast repertoire of reporting verbs which contributed to make her article’s reading more lively. She also searched deeply into different well known authors’ works and took advantage of their words to construct new knowledge and allow the readers to hear her voice. What is more, she succeeded in using a variety of strategies for acknowledging sources and so, made her paper interesting and worth reading. Therefore, it is very probable that she has succeeded in composing an article that fulfils the academic writing requirements and as Banfi (1997) claims “[has contributed] to the advancement of knowledge in the field” (cited in Pintos & Crimi, 2010b, p8).
References
Myles, J. (2002). Second language writing and research: The writing process and error
analysis in student texts. Teaching English as a Second or foreign language, 6, (2).
Queen’s University. Retrieved October 2010, from
http://www-writing.berkeley.edu/TESL-EJ/ej22/a1.html
Pintos, V., & Crimi, Y. (2010a). Unit 2: Personal narratives in teaching. Universidad
CAECE: Buenos Aires, Argentina. Retrieved, September, 2010, from
http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=7214
Pintos, V., & Crimi, Y. (2010b). Unit 3: Academic writing. Universidad CAECE: Buenos
Aires, Argentina. Retrieved, September, 2010, from
http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/index.php?id=7392
martes, 30 de noviembre de 2010
Critical incidents: Violence at school
In our every day teaching practice, teachers face problematic situations which should be solved on the basis of our resources. The analysis of each unexpected situation will enable us to go beyond our cherished notions and interpret the situations deeply in order to carry out effective solutions to them (Flanagan, 1954, cited in Pintos & Crimi, 2010). Being able to provide immediate decision-making will increase the teacher’s self-confidence and foster the achievement of their professional growth.
During my life as a teacher I have had to face different problematic situations such as learners who did not like the subject itself or the way in which lessons were taught; those who refused to speak English or those whose behaviours made the classroom a non-friendly environment for the teaching-learning process to take place. This time I would like to share an experience that shocked me, perhaps, because it was my first contact with violence at school and I was not prepared at all to handle it.
The incident occurred while I was doing my practices at a state run primary school. The group was formed by 28 students at fifth year of Primary School, so they were between 9 and 10 year. Their level was not brilliant and their behaviour was not the best one possible but they had worked properly and produced more than I had expected through the previous observation lessons.
All seemed to be under control and my teacher and I were happy about the students attitude and their progress until, during the fourth day of my practices while I was alone
with the students because their teacher was ill and my teacher had considered that she had seen enough about my work this incident took place.
The class had gone as usual. Except for a minor disturbance caused by an interesting realia I presented, their performance had been optimum. I was really proud of the students and thought that it was a pity not having my teacher’s feedback on that day’s lesson. However, while the learners were putting their books and pencil cases into their schoolbags a fight started between two girls.
In less than a minute the girls were on the floor, caught by their hair and fighting with a violence I had never imagined while the rest of the students were around them cheering the girls. I still do not know how I managed to separate them but I did it. I also made the rest of the students occupy their benches and all had a five minute chat that allowed me to understand the girls’ attitude: For them and their families fighting to solve their problems was as or more natural than talking.
Although I may grant that I have got profit of reflection, even before knowing about the Critical Incidents Technique (CIT), I should also recognize that if I had been trained using it, perhaps, my first experience with violence would not have been so shocking. Therefore, it could be assumed that it is almost certain that introspection would help teachers to design new strategies and improve their future practices, enhancing continuous professional growth.
References
Fernández González, J., Elórtegui Escartín, N. and Medina Pérez, M. (2003). Los
Incidentes Críticos en la Formación y Perfeccionamiento del Profesorado de
Secundaria de Ciencias de la Naturaleza. Revista Interuniversitaria de
Formación de Profesorado, 17(1), 101-112. Universidad de Zaragoza:
Zaragoza, España. Retrieved December 2007, from
http://redalyc.uaemex.mx/src/inicio/ArtPdfRed.jsp?iCve=27417107
Pintos, V., & Crimi, Y. (2010). Unit 2: Personal Narratives in Teaching
Universidad CAECE: Buenos Aires, Argentina.
Retrieved , September, 2010, from
http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=7214
During my life as a teacher I have had to face different problematic situations such as learners who did not like the subject itself or the way in which lessons were taught; those who refused to speak English or those whose behaviours made the classroom a non-friendly environment for the teaching-learning process to take place. This time I would like to share an experience that shocked me, perhaps, because it was my first contact with violence at school and I was not prepared at all to handle it.
The incident occurred while I was doing my practices at a state run primary school. The group was formed by 28 students at fifth year of Primary School, so they were between 9 and 10 year. Their level was not brilliant and their behaviour was not the best one possible but they had worked properly and produced more than I had expected through the previous observation lessons.
All seemed to be under control and my teacher and I were happy about the students attitude and their progress until, during the fourth day of my practices while I was alone
with the students because their teacher was ill and my teacher had considered that she had seen enough about my work this incident took place.
The class had gone as usual. Except for a minor disturbance caused by an interesting realia I presented, their performance had been optimum. I was really proud of the students and thought that it was a pity not having my teacher’s feedback on that day’s lesson. However, while the learners were putting their books and pencil cases into their schoolbags a fight started between two girls.
In less than a minute the girls were on the floor, caught by their hair and fighting with a violence I had never imagined while the rest of the students were around them cheering the girls. I still do not know how I managed to separate them but I did it. I also made the rest of the students occupy their benches and all had a five minute chat that allowed me to understand the girls’ attitude: For them and their families fighting to solve their problems was as or more natural than talking.
Although I may grant that I have got profit of reflection, even before knowing about the Critical Incidents Technique (CIT), I should also recognize that if I had been trained using it, perhaps, my first experience with violence would not have been so shocking. Therefore, it could be assumed that it is almost certain that introspection would help teachers to design new strategies and improve their future practices, enhancing continuous professional growth.
References
Fernández González, J., Elórtegui Escartín, N. and Medina Pérez, M. (2003). Los
Incidentes Críticos en la Formación y Perfeccionamiento del Profesorado de
Secundaria de Ciencias de la Naturaleza. Revista Interuniversitaria de
Formación de Profesorado, 17(1), 101-112. Universidad de Zaragoza:
Zaragoza, España. Retrieved December 2007, from
http://redalyc.uaemex.mx/src/inicio/ArtPdfRed.jsp?iCve=27417107
Pintos, V., & Crimi, Y. (2010). Unit 2: Personal Narratives in Teaching
Universidad CAECE: Buenos Aires, Argentina.
Retrieved , September, 2010, from
http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=7214
Is there any connection between reflection and professional growth?
Several theorists such as Gil (1991) and Torre (1997), (cited in Fernández González, Elórtegui Escartín and Medina Pérez, 2003) have claimed that the only requirement for teaching is mastering the concepts of the field, however, there have been educative innovations that require more than knowledge from teachers as professionals. For instance, they should not only handle their subjects, but also, be able to observe and reflect about what they and others teach. Thus, they will make appropriate decisions.
According to Fernández González et al. (2003) the teaching-learning process at the Teaching English as Foreign Language (TEFL) College is a collaborative process with a formative intention shared by two or more people. What is more, they state that there is co-responsibility between the teacher, who is in charge of teaching how to learn and the novel teacher who should learn how to teach. Through this process responsible and reflective teachers will be formed.
To help the novel teachers to grow as professionals, they propose the use of Critical Incident Technique (CIT) as a way of achieving reflection about what happens in class. By the use of this technique, teacher-students will analyze and decide about difficult situations, in a friendly risk environment, which will help them in immediate decision making of real class situations. In other words, they will be able to approach reality without taking risks (Fernández & Fernández, 1994, cited in Fernández González et al., 2003).
After all this analysis, it would be possible to conclude that reflection helps us to assume responsibility for our own teaching and learning. It also fosters our continuous learning process and provides useful insights to be used in our practices. As a result, reflection could be considered one of the most important steps to professional growth.
References
Fernández González, J., Elórtegui Escartín, N., & Medina Pérez, M. (2003). Los
incidentes críticos en la formación y perfeccionamiento del profesorado de secundaria
de ciencias de la naturaleza. Revista universitaria de Formación de Profesorado, 17-
001. Zaragoza, España: Universidad de Zaragoza. Retrieved December 2007, from
http://redalyc.uaemex.mx/redalyc/src/inicio/ArtPdfRed.jsp?iCve=27417107
According to Fernández González et al. (2003) the teaching-learning process at the Teaching English as Foreign Language (TEFL) College is a collaborative process with a formative intention shared by two or more people. What is more, they state that there is co-responsibility between the teacher, who is in charge of teaching how to learn and the novel teacher who should learn how to teach. Through this process responsible and reflective teachers will be formed.
To help the novel teachers to grow as professionals, they propose the use of Critical Incident Technique (CIT) as a way of achieving reflection about what happens in class. By the use of this technique, teacher-students will analyze and decide about difficult situations, in a friendly risk environment, which will help them in immediate decision making of real class situations. In other words, they will be able to approach reality without taking risks (Fernández & Fernández, 1994, cited in Fernández González et al., 2003).
After all this analysis, it would be possible to conclude that reflection helps us to assume responsibility for our own teaching and learning. It also fosters our continuous learning process and provides useful insights to be used in our practices. As a result, reflection could be considered one of the most important steps to professional growth.
References
Fernández González, J., Elórtegui Escartín, N., & Medina Pérez, M. (2003). Los
incidentes críticos en la formación y perfeccionamiento del profesorado de secundaria
de ciencias de la naturaleza. Revista universitaria de Formación de Profesorado, 17-
001. Zaragoza, España: Universidad de Zaragoza. Retrieved December 2007, from
http://redalyc.uaemex.mx/redalyc/src/inicio/ArtPdfRed.jsp?iCve=27417107
Towards a unified theory of discourse community
A discourse community could be defined as a group of people who develop and use systems of speech and writing that are quite specific to their particular community’s needs and goals. They find participatory mechanisms to transmit information and feedback and are composed of a minimum number of expert members and a frequently larger number of apprentice members that little by little operate on the basis of the community implicit and explicit goals (Pintos and Crimi, 2010).
Many researchers and theorists have described a discourse community as a knowledge community, “a social mechanism that holds people together and which emerges from them with certain values, aims, expectations and language-using practices” (as cited in Pintos, & Crimi, 2010, p.11). From these theorists, Swales (1990) provided basic criteria for a discourse community to be recognized as such. According to him, these groups should meet important requirements such as common goals, specific genres, high level of expertise, use of specialized terminology, information exchange and participation. The purpose of this paper is to analyze four articles to find evidence which could support his theory.
Wenzlaff and Wieseman (2004) seem to confirm Swales’ (1990) criteria when they postulate that teachers need teachers to grow because information exchange and participation are implied, teachers share common goals, use specialized terminology, and have a relative level of expertise. What is more, one of the purposes of their study is to immerse teachers in a collaborative culture that allowed them to learn from one another as colleagues and to fulfil their aim they took into account the importance of interactions in a discourse community and the significance of a collaborative culture as a force for change.
Hoffman-Kipp, Artiles, and Lopez Torres (2003) state that although reflection is in itself an important means for developing subject matter, and pedagogical-content knowledge about how to teach, it is not enough. Reflection must coexist with meaningful praxis, understood as the union of reflexion and action. This meaningful practice will require the achievement of common goals, a good exchange of information and participation, use of specialized terminology and a good deal of theory to illuminate it. All this illustrates their vision of teacher reflection as constituent of teacher learning as praxis and how Swales’ (1990) requirements can contribute to it development.
Kelly-Kleese, (2001, 2004) described a discourse community stating that “ is a group of people who share certain language using practices ... that can be seen as conventionalized by social interactions within the group and by its dealings with the outsiders” (as cited in Bizzel, 1992, p. 222) and highlighted that although discourse community borrows from speech community’s definition the idea that it is bound together primarily by its uses of language is a more inclusive term because it includes both spoken and written discourse. What is more, she considers that higher education has a discourse community that governs the university’s spoken and written words and that, in this context, the community college can be seen as a subset of this larger discourse community and also as a discourse community in its own right, because its members have, over time, developed a common discourse that involves shared knowledge, common purposes and relationships, and similar attitudes and values.
Under the light of this analysis, it can be concluded that all the authors appear to show evidence of their support to Swales’ (1990) discourse community definition. Through their articles the ideas of sharing common goals, using specific vocabulary, high degree of expertise, information exchange and participatory mechanisms have been developed and put into use. Is this development what allows us to consider up to what extend his criteria has been praised.
Reference
Hoffman-Kipp, P., Artiles, A. J., & Lopez Torres, L. (2003). Beyond reflection: teacher
learning as praxis. Theory into Practice. Retrieved October 2007, from
http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0NQM/is_3_42/ai_108442653
Kelly-Kleese, C. (2001). Editor’s Choice: An Open Memo to Community College
Faculty and Administrators. Community College Review. Retrieved October 2007,
from
http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0HCZ/is_1_29/ai_77481463
Kelly-Kleese, C. (2004). UCLA community college review: community college
scholarship and discourse. Community College Review. Retrieved October 2007,
from
http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0HCZ/is_1_32/ai_n6361541
Pintos, V., & Crimi, Y. (2010). Unit 1: Building up a Community of Teachers and
Prospective Researchers.
Universidad CAECE: Buenos Aires, Argentina.
Retrieved , August 2, 2010, from
http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=6856
Wenzlaff, T. L., & Wieseman, K. C. (2004). Teachers Need Teachers To Grow.
Teacher Education Quarterly. Retrieved October 2007, from
http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3960/is_200404/ai_n9349405
Many researchers and theorists have described a discourse community as a knowledge community, “a social mechanism that holds people together and which emerges from them with certain values, aims, expectations and language-using practices” (as cited in Pintos, & Crimi, 2010, p.11). From these theorists, Swales (1990) provided basic criteria for a discourse community to be recognized as such. According to him, these groups should meet important requirements such as common goals, specific genres, high level of expertise, use of specialized terminology, information exchange and participation. The purpose of this paper is to analyze four articles to find evidence which could support his theory.
Wenzlaff and Wieseman (2004) seem to confirm Swales’ (1990) criteria when they postulate that teachers need teachers to grow because information exchange and participation are implied, teachers share common goals, use specialized terminology, and have a relative level of expertise. What is more, one of the purposes of their study is to immerse teachers in a collaborative culture that allowed them to learn from one another as colleagues and to fulfil their aim they took into account the importance of interactions in a discourse community and the significance of a collaborative culture as a force for change.
Hoffman-Kipp, Artiles, and Lopez Torres (2003) state that although reflection is in itself an important means for developing subject matter, and pedagogical-content knowledge about how to teach, it is not enough. Reflection must coexist with meaningful praxis, understood as the union of reflexion and action. This meaningful practice will require the achievement of common goals, a good exchange of information and participation, use of specialized terminology and a good deal of theory to illuminate it. All this illustrates their vision of teacher reflection as constituent of teacher learning as praxis and how Swales’ (1990) requirements can contribute to it development.
Kelly-Kleese, (2001, 2004) described a discourse community stating that “ is a group of people who share certain language using practices ... that can be seen as conventionalized by social interactions within the group and by its dealings with the outsiders” (as cited in Bizzel, 1992, p. 222) and highlighted that although discourse community borrows from speech community’s definition the idea that it is bound together primarily by its uses of language is a more inclusive term because it includes both spoken and written discourse. What is more, she considers that higher education has a discourse community that governs the university’s spoken and written words and that, in this context, the community college can be seen as a subset of this larger discourse community and also as a discourse community in its own right, because its members have, over time, developed a common discourse that involves shared knowledge, common purposes and relationships, and similar attitudes and values.
Under the light of this analysis, it can be concluded that all the authors appear to show evidence of their support to Swales’ (1990) discourse community definition. Through their articles the ideas of sharing common goals, using specific vocabulary, high degree of expertise, information exchange and participatory mechanisms have been developed and put into use. Is this development what allows us to consider up to what extend his criteria has been praised.
Reference
Hoffman-Kipp, P., Artiles, A. J., & Lopez Torres, L. (2003). Beyond reflection: teacher
learning as praxis. Theory into Practice. Retrieved October 2007, from
http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0NQM/is_3_42/ai_108442653
Kelly-Kleese, C. (2001). Editor’s Choice: An Open Memo to Community College
Faculty and Administrators. Community College Review. Retrieved October 2007,
from
http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0HCZ/is_1_29/ai_77481463
Kelly-Kleese, C. (2004). UCLA community college review: community college
scholarship and discourse. Community College Review. Retrieved October 2007,
from
http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0HCZ/is_1_32/ai_n6361541
Pintos, V., & Crimi, Y. (2010). Unit 1: Building up a Community of Teachers and
Prospective Researchers.
Universidad CAECE: Buenos Aires, Argentina.
Retrieved , August 2, 2010, from
http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=6856
Wenzlaff, T. L., & Wieseman, K. C. (2004). Teachers Need Teachers To Grow.
Teacher Education Quarterly. Retrieved October 2007, from
http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3960/is_200404/ai_n9349405
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